Дэлгэрэнгүй мэдээлэл

This article investigates the role of children as carers in Mongolia, a country with a limited formal care infrastructure and distinct cultural and economic characteristics. Using nationally representative data from the 2019 Mongolian Time Use Survey, we find that 32 percent of children aged 12–17 engage in caregiving activities, performing 35 percent of childcare work in the family, compared to 48 percent of adults. Children’s care work is highly gendered and varies by location, with urban children more likely to care for siblings and less likely to care for older or disabled family members. Our regression analysis reveals that girls with younger siblings are more likely to provide care. While caregiving does not significantly reduce children’s time spent on learning and intensive unpaid work, it has a substantial negative impact on educational engagement. These findings underscore the importance of recognizing children’s contributions to family care and the need to address the educational trade-offs associated with unpaid work.

We aimed to map paid and unpaid care work in the context of the national economic, social assistance and social welfare policy of Mongolia. We used the secondary data including the Mongolian Time Use Survey 2015, 2019, Labor Force Survey 2018, Household Socio-Economic Survey 2018, health, education sector statistics available at the National Statistical Office information platform on www.1212.mn, and data and reports published by the line ministries and international organizations and reveiwed findings by other researchers. Based on the research review, we found that about 30 percent of the central government budget in 2021 was spent on care services including education, health, and directly paid cash allowance and financing care homes for elders, children and people with disabilities. Moreover, the unpaid care sector produces value equal 15.3- 17 percent of the country’s Gross Domestic Product in 2015 and 2019. We identified data gaps for measuring paid and unpaid care. Mongolia has relatively good data for examining the care sector, but faces limitations on understanding paid care for elders and disabled people, particularly the extent of informal paid care, and also informal paid care for children 0-2.9

Climate change is reshaping caregiving in rural Mongolian herder households, yet its impacts on unpaid care remain underexplored. This study investigates how extreme climate events—such as dzud, droughts, floods, and dust storms—affect care provision and receiving, with particular attention to gendered burdens. Using thematic analysis of in-depth interviews with 55 caregivers and 27 care receivers, we document both direct and indirect effects. Environmental degradation and infrastructure loss increase women’s indirect care time (e.g., fetching water, fuel), while migration and disease outbreaks intensify direct care demands. Findings reveal that climate stressors disrupt established care networks, reduce access to formal services, and heighten unpaid workloads, especially for women responsible for children, elders, and disabled family members. By proposing a gendered conceptual framework, this research underscores the need to integrate care into climate adaptation and social policy, ensuring resilience strategies account for the hidden labor sustaining household survival.

This study investigates the role of children as carers in Mongolia, a country with a limited formal care infrastructure and distinct cultural and economic characteristics. Using nationally representative data from the Mongolian Time Use Survey (MTUS) 2019, we find that 32 per cent of children aged 12–17 engage in caregiving activities (and perform 35% of childcare work in the family), compared to 48 per cent of adults. Children’s care work is highly gendered and varies by location, with urban children more likely to care for siblings and less likely to care for older or disabled family members. Our regression analysis reveals that girls, children with younger siblings are more likely to provide care. While light caregiving does not significantly reduce children’s time spent on learning, intensive unpaid work—such as domestic chores and household production—has a substantial negative impact on educational engagement. These findings underscore the importance of recognizing children’s contributions to family care and the need to address the educational trade-offs associated with unpaid work.

We aimed to map paid and unpaid care work in the context of the national economic,social assistance and social welfare policy of Mongolia. We used the secondary data in-cluding the Mongolian Time Use Survey 2015, 2019, Labor Force Survey 2018, HouseholdSocio-Economic Survey 2018, health, education sector statistics available at the NationalStatistical Office information platform onwww.1212.mn, and data and reports publishedby the line ministries and international organizations and reveiwed findings by other re-searchers. Based on the research review, we found that about 30 percent of the centralgovernment budget in 2021 was spent on care services including education, health, anddirectly paid cash allowance and financing care homes for elders, children and people withdisabilities. Moreover, the unpaid care sector produces value equal 15.3- 17 percent of thecountry’s Gross Domestic Product in 2015 and 2019. We identified data gaps for mea-suring paid and unpaid care. Mongolia has relatively good data for examining the caresector, but faces limitations on understanding paid care for elders and disabled people,particularly the extent ofinformalpaid care, and also informal paid care for children 0-2.

Abstract: The research delivers the climate change impact on the unpaid care giving and receiving in herders, nomadic families in Mongolia. As Floro (2016) notes, the nature of care activities and the distribution of these tasks change over time in response to demographic, technological and economic shifts, as well as unanticipated phenomena such as the COVID-19 pandemic and extreme climate events. We aim to pay special attention to the gendered effects of the unpaid care economy and government policy responses to the rural herder women and men in their care giving and receiving during harsh winter and spring times. Pastoralism provides the livelihood of 40% of the population of 3.4 million people in Mongolia. Weather and infrastructure issues complicate the delivery of preschool education and medical services to nomadic herders. We explored the government policy analysis such as care infrastructure, care-related social protection, care services for rural herders, and the lack of employment-related care policies since they are self-employed herders. We found that to ensure economic survival, herders squeeze their time allocated for care, thus their dependents are, unavoidably, left often unattended. With the rural population aging, and low, and uncertain, herding incomes, partially, herders solve the problem by migrating to urban areas. But migration is not an attractive option for many of the elders we spoke to in herding households, who are deeply attached to their rural environment. At least in the medium term, there will be a need to find ways to improve the provision of care in rural areas. We draw on a wide range of sources—secondary literature, administrative data, the Mongolian Time Use Surveys of 2015 and 2019, and recent interviews with 59 herding households in 7 provinces such as Huvsgul, Zavhan, Dundgobi, Dornod, Hentii, Tuv and Hovd conducted in summer, autumn and winter of 2023 to describe the care situation in Mongolia’s herding households. We discuss the main findings and suggest some possible policies to address challenges of providing care among Mongolian herding households. The need for additional resources to improve rural infrastructure, particularly roads and communication technology, came through clearly in our interviews. We, the researchers, hope that by highlighting key issues we can contribute to the literature on climate change impact on unpaid care and better policymaking. Key Words : Climate change, care work, government policy, herder households, Mongolia JEL : Q54, J13, J14, J16, I38, O53

Childcare represents a substantial component of the care economy, with traditional and cultural norms often placing the primary burden of care on mothers. Despite its significance, there remains a significant gap in research on how childcare is provided in urban and rural settings in Mongolia. This study seeks to bridge this gap by offering a comprehensive analysis of childcare practices in Mongolia, drawing on both primary and secondary data sources. Our research reveals that, due to the limited availability and accessibility of formal paid care services, children have increasingly taken on unpaid childcare responsibilities in these regions. This trend underscores the critical need for an expanded and more accessible childcare system in Mongolia, in urban and rural, nomadic areas. Furthermore, this study critically evaluates the narrow range of paid childcare options currently available in the Mongolian market. The limited array of choices contributes to an unmet demand, leaving many families without adequate support. Our findings also highlight deficiencies in the existing legislative frameworks governing childcare, pointing to a need for significant reforms to create a more inclusive and resilient care infrastructure. In conclusion, our analysis offers vital insights and policy recommendations aimed at developing a comprehensive childcare system that meets the needs of both urban and rural Mongolia. By addressing these gaps, Mongolia can work towards creating a more equitable and accessible childcare environment for all families.

This study attempts to map out the size and shape and measure the paid care sector based on the most available data in Mongolia for the first time. Estimating spending on childcare, elderly care and care for the disabled in monetary terms is essential for the welfare of care receivers and has macroeconomic implications. Using the central government budget spending data, the Labor Force Survey, and the Household Socio-Economic Survey we estimate the approximate size of paid care sector financed by the government and households in Mongolia. We find that Mongolia's preliminary measure of the paid care sector is equal to 10.6 percent of the GDP in 2021. Also, we identified the data gap for measuring paid care.

This study examines the effect of couples' employment status on violence against women based on the 6,090-women sample data from Mongolia's Gender-based Violence Survey 2017 (GBVS). We applied the probit model to analyze the effect and found that the couple's employment status affects the violence against women.

Энэхүү судалгааны зорилго нь Жендерт суурилсан хүчирхийллийн судалгаа (ЖСХС)-ны 2017 оны өгөгдлийн санд үндэслэн хосуудын боловсролын ялгаатай байдал нь эмэгтэйчүүдийн эсрэг хүчирхийлэлд ямар нөлөө үзүүлж байгааг судлах юм. Судалгаанд ЖСХС-ны өгөгдлөөс 6090 эмэгтэйн өгөгдлийг ашигласан бөгөөд эмэгтэйчүүдийн эсрэг хүчирхийлэлд хосуудын боловсролын ялгаатай байдлын үзүүлэх нөлөөг үнэлэхдээ пробит регрессийн загвараар үнэлсэн. Регрессийн шинжилгээний үр дүнгээс харвал, хосуудын боловсролын ялгаатай байдал нь ижил түвшний боловсрол бүхий хамтрагчтай эмэгтэйтэй харьцуулахад тухайн эмэгтэйн хүчирхийлэлд өртөх магадлалыг нэмэгдүүлдэг байна.

Энэхүү судалгааны зорилго нь Жендерт суурилсан хүчирхийллийн судалгаа (ЖСХС)-ны 2017 оны өгөгдлийн санд үндэслэн хосуудын ажил эрхлэлтийн байдал нь эмэгтэйчүүдийн эсрэг хүчирхийлэлд ямар нөлөө үзүүлж байгааг судлах юм. Судалгаанд ЖСХС-ны өгөгдлөөс 6090 эмэгтэйн өгөгдлийг ашигласан бөгөөд эмэгтэйчүүдийн эсрэг хүчирхийлэлд хосуудын ажил эрхлэлтийн байдлын үзүүлэх нөлөөг үнэлэхдээ пробит регрессийн загвараар үнэлсэн. Регрессийн шинжилгээний үр дүнгээс харвал, хосуудын цалин хөлстэй ажил эрхэлдэг эсэх нь гэр бүлийн харилцаанд нөлөө үзүүлдэг байна. Тухайлбал, хосуудын зөвхөн эрэгтэй нь ажил эрхэлдэг бол аль аль нь ажил эрхэлдэггүй хостой харьцуулахад хамтрагчийн зүгээс эмэгтэйн эсрэг үйлдэх хүчирхийллийг статистик ач холбогдол бүхий бууруулах нөлөө үзүүлж байв. Мөн хоёул цалин хөлтэй ажил эрхэлдэггүй хостой харьцуулахад хосууд аль аль нь цалин хөлстэй ажил эрхэлдэг бол хамтрагчийн зүгээс эмэгтэйн эсрэг үйлдэх хүчирхийлэл статистик ач холбогдол бүхий бага байв.

2007/2008-аас 2018 онд Монгол Улсын хүн амын амьжиргааг хэрэглээнийх нь зардалд тулгуурлан авч үзэхэд сайжирсан эсэхийг 2007/2008 ба 2018 онд Үндэсний Статистикийн Хороо (ҮСХ)-ноос хийсэн Өрхийн Нийгэм Эдийн Засгийн Судалгаа (ӨНЭЗС)-ны тоон өгөгдөлд тулгуурлан судлав. Үр дүнг үзвэл, 2007/2008-аас 2018 онд Монгол Улсын хүн амын хэрэглээнд бага боловч өсөлт ажиглагдаж, хэрэглээний бүтэц амьжиргааны сайжралтыг илтгэсэн чиглэлд өөрчлөгдөж чадсан ч хүн амын дийлэнхийн хэрэглээ нийт хүн амын дундаж хэрэглээнд хүрэхгүй хэмжээнд байсаар байна. Хэрэглээнд суурилсан ядуурал, ядуурах эмзэг байдлын түвшин мэдэгдэхүйц хэмжээгээр буурсан ч хүн амын дундах хэрэглээний тэгш бус байдал дорвитой буурсангүй. Хэрэглээнд нь сөрөг нөлөөтэй ямар нэг шок эдийн засагт тохиоход ядуурч болзошгүй гэж үнэлэгдсэн хүн амын олонх нь хэт бага дундаж хэрэглээнээсээ үүдэн эмзэг байдалтай болсон гэж 2007/2008 оны хувьд үнэлэгдсэн бол 10 жилийн дараа эмзэг байдалтай хүн амын 55.0% нь хэт бага дундаж хэрэглээний улмаас, үлдсэн нь хэлбэлзэл ихтэй хэрэглээнээс шалтгаалан эмзэг байдалтай болжээ. Эмзэг байдлын голлох эх сурвалжийг хүн амын ядуу ба ядуу бус бүлгээр зааглан авч үзэхэд мөн ялгаатай байв. Ийнхүү, 2007/2008-аас 2018 оны хооронд хэрэглээний тэгш бус байдал төдийлөн буураагүйг эс тооцвол хүн амын амьжиргаанд ахиц гарсан гэж үзэж болохоор байна.

Энэхүү эмпирик судалгааны ажлаар Монгол Улсын Засгийн Газраас 0-17 насны бүх хүүхдийг хамарсан хүүхдийн мөнгөн тэтгэмжийн хөтөлбөрийн хамрах хүрээг буурууллсан шийдвэрийн өрхийн хэрэглээнд үзүүлсэн нөлөөг үнэллээ. Хүүхдийн мөнгө хөтөлбөрийн анхны зорилго нь ядуурлыг бууруулах, хүүхдийн боловсрол, эрүүл мэнд, хоол тэжээлийг нэмэгдүүлэх, уул уурхайн орлогыг дахин хуваарилах явдал байв. Гэвч 2014 оноос эдийн засгийн өсөлт саарч, улмаар 2016 онд хүүхдийн мөнгийг 0-17 насны бүх хүүхдэд олгох боломжгүй болсон юм. Бид ӨНЭЗС-ны 2014 болон 2018 оны кроссэкшинал тоон өгөгдлийг ашиглан Propensity Score Matching болон регрессэд суурилсан Differece-In-Difference аргаар хүүхдийн мөнгөн тэтгэмжийн хамрах хүрээг бууруулсан шийдвэрийн өрхийн хэрэглээнд үзүүлсэн нөлөөг үнэлсэн. Бидэнд панел өгөгдөл нэгэнт байхгүй учраас Propensity Score Matching аргыг ашиглан хуурмаг панел өгөгдөл үүсгэн үнэлгээгээ хийсэн. Үүний дараа ATET-ыг регрессэд суурилсан Differece-In-Difference аргаар үнэлсэн. Регрессэд суурилсан Differece-In-Difference арга нь дан Differece-In-Difference аргаар үнэлсэн үнэлгээний боломжит биасыг багасгаж өгдөг давуу талтай. Кейнсийн хэрэглээний онолын дагуу өрхийн орлого буурах нь хэрэглээнд сөрөг нөлөө үзүүлдэг. Судалгааны үр дүнгээр Хүүхдийн мөнгөн тэтгэмжийн хамрах хүрээг бууруулах шийдвэр нь орлого өндөртэй бүлгийн хэрэглээнд мэдэгдэхүйц нөлөө үзүүлээгүй бөгөөд орлого багатай, ядуу өрхийн хэрэглээнд нөлөөлсөн байна. Өрхийн хэрэглээнд нөлөөлөхдөө байр, орон сууц, хүнсний бус өргөн хэрэглээний болон хүнсний хэрэглээний зарим нэр төрөлд зарцуулж буй зарлагыг бууруулсан байв.

Энэхүү судалгааны ажил нь идэвхтэй уншлагын SQ3R аргачлалыг туршсан эмпирик судалгааны ажил юм. Өгөгдлийг 2018-2019 оны хичээлийн жилд нийслэлийн ерөнхий боловсролын 52-р дунд сургуулийн 8-р ангийн 2 бүлэгт явуулсан судалгааны үр дүнгээс авсан бөгөөд 136 нэгж бүхий панел өгөгдлийг ашигласан. SQ3R аргачлалын нөлөөллийг Double Difference аргаар Censored Regression загварыг ашиглан үнэлсэн. Судалгаагаар SQ3R аргачлал нь сурагчдын ойлгоцын төвшинг дунджаар 5.71%-иар нэмэгдүүлсэн гэсэн статистик ач холбогдол бүхий үр дүн гарсан. Мөн унших хурд болон ойлгоцын төвшин эерэг хамааралтай байв.

This study investigates the causal impact of Mongolia’s universal child benefit program on female labor supply and household expenditure using Difference-In-Difference-In-Differences approach. In addition, we focused on the how households spend their benefit income. To examine the relationship between benefit income and household expenditures, we use Seemingly Unrelated Regression model. We use cross-sectional data from the Integrated Household Income and Expenditure Survey with Living Standards Measurement Survey of 2002/2003 and Household Socio-Economic Survey of 2007/2008 from the National Statistical Office of Mongolia. We find that between 2002/2003 and 2007/2008, women with children decreased their relative labor force participation by 12.27 percentage points. The estimated adverse effects of child benefit program on labor force participation are proved by linear regression of annual hours of worked. When we estimate the effects of UCBP on worked hours conditional on hours exceeding zero, women with children decreased their relative working hours conditional on working by 155.32 hours. Moreover, we find that the effects of UCBP on household expenditures depending on household behavior. For households involved in agriculture, households receiving benefit income increased their expenditures on non-durable goods than food and durable goods. Contrary, households not involved in agriculture, they increased their expenditures on food items than durable and non-durable goods. For the low and middle-income group, there are positive UCBP effects on the broad variety of food and non-durable expenditure categories. However, there have been almost no significant effects of UCBP on the expenditures for the high-income group. In addition, we found that income transfers are shared between children and their parents.

This study investigates the causal impact of Mongolia’s universal child benefit program on female labor supply and household expenditure using Difference-In-Difference-In-Differences approach. In addition, we focused on how households spend their benefit income. To examine the relationship between benefit income and household expenditures, we use a Seemingly Unrelated Regression model. We use cross-sectional data from the Integrated Household Income and Expenditure Survey with Living Standards Measurement Survey of 2002/2003 and Household Socio-Economic Survey of 2007/2008 from the National Statistical Office of Mongolia. We find that between 2002/2003 and 2007/2008, women with children decreased their relative labor force participation by 12.27 percentage points. The estimated adverse effects of child benefit programs on labor force participation are proved by linear regression of annual hours of worked. When we estimate the impacts of UCBP on worked hours conditional on hours exceeding zero, women with children decreased their relative working hours conditional on working by 155.32 hours. Moreover, we find that the effects of UCBP on household expenditures depending on household behavior. For households involved in agriculture, households receiving benefit income increased their expenditures on non-durable goods than food and durable goods. Contrary, households not involved in agriculture, they increased their expenditures on food items than durable and non-durable goods. For the low and middle-income groups, there are positive UCBP effects on the wide variety of food and non-durable expenditure categories. However, there have been almost no significant effects of UCBP on the expenditures for the high-income group. In addition, we found that income transfers are shared between children and their parents.

This study investigates the causal impact of the universal child benefit program of Mongolia on female labor force participation and working hours of women with children using Propensity Score Matching with Difference-In-Differences approach. The child benefit program of Mongolia, which we focused on in this study, is a unique case of the developing countries that implementing universal cash transfer programs. Our estimation strategy compares the labor force participation of women with children before and after the child benefit program. We use cross-sectional data from the Integrated Household Income and Expenditure Survey with Living Standards Measurement Survey of 2002/2003 and Household Socio-Economic Survey of 2007/2008 from the NSO of Mongolia. We find that between 2002/2003 and 2007/2008, women with children decreased their relative labor force participation by 12.27 percentage points. The estimated adverse effects of child benefit programs on labor force participation are proved by linear regression of annual hours of worked. When we estimate the effects of universal child benefit on worked hours conditional on hours exceeding zero, women with children decreased their relative annual working hours conditional on working by 155.32 hours.