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ABSTRACT Care work constitutes the foundation of social reproduction, yet in Mongolia it is predominantly performed within families as unpaid labor and is widely perceived as women’s “natural” responsibility. Drawing on qualitative data collected in 2023–2024 from urban and rural households, in the frame of the Care Economies in Global Context global project, as well as interviews with policymakers, service providers, and international organizations, this article examines the current organization of care work in Mongolia and its impacts on families, particularly on women’s labor market participation, time use, and emotional well being. The analysis integrates Ito Peng’s care regime framework, Maria Floro’s concept of time poverty, Arlie Hochschild’s theory of emotional labor, and Ronnie J. Steinberg’s critique of job evaluation and compensation. The findings demonstrate that care work in Mongolia remains highly gendered and undervalued, underscoring the urgent need to move beyond familial moral responsibility toward a comprehensive social policy approach. Keywords: care work, unpaid labor, gender, emotional labor, care regime
This article investigates the role of children as carers in Mongolia, a country with a limited formal care infrastructure and distinct cultural and economic characteristics. Using nationally representative data from the 2019 Mongolian Time Use Survey, we find that 32 percent of children aged 12–17 engage in caregiving activities, performing 35 percent of childcare work in the family, compared to 48 percent of adults. Children’s care work is highly gendered and varies by location, with urban children more likely to care for siblings and less likely to care for older or disabled family members. Our regression analysis reveals that girls with younger siblings are more likely to provide care. While caregiving does not significantly reduce children’s time spent on learning and intensive unpaid work, it has a substantial negative impact on educational engagement. These findings underscore the importance of recognizing children’s contributions to family care and the need to address the educational trade-offs associated with unpaid work.
We aimed to map paid and unpaid care work in the context of the national economic, social assistance and social welfare policy of Mongolia. We used the secondary data including the Mongolian Time Use Survey 2015, 2019, Labor Force Survey 2018, Household Socio-Economic Survey 2018, health, education sector statistics available at the National Statistical Office information platform on www.1212.mn, and data and reports published by the line ministries and international organizations and reveiwed findings by other researchers. Based on the research review, we found that about 30 percent of the central government budget in 2021 was spent on care services including education, health, and directly paid cash allowance and financing care homes for elders, children and people with disabilities. Moreover, the unpaid care sector produces value equal 15.3- 17 percent of the country’s Gross Domestic Product in 2015 and 2019. We identified data gaps for measuring paid and unpaid care. Mongolia has relatively good data for examining the care sector, but faces limitations on understanding paid care for elders and disabled people, particularly the extent of informal paid care, and also informal paid care for children 0-2.9
Climate change is reshaping caregiving in rural Mongolian herder households, yet its impacts on unpaid care remain underexplored. This study investigates how extreme climate events—such as dzud, droughts, floods, and dust storms—affect care provision and receiving, with particular attention to gendered burdens. Using thematic analysis of in-depth interviews with 55 caregivers and 27 care receivers, we document both direct and indirect effects. Environmental degradation and infrastructure loss increase women’s indirect care time (e.g., fetching water, fuel), while migration and disease outbreaks intensify direct care demands. Findings reveal that climate stressors disrupt established care networks, reduce access to formal services, and heighten unpaid workloads, especially for women responsible for children, elders, and disabled family members. By proposing a gendered conceptual framework, this research underscores the need to integrate care into climate adaptation and social policy, ensuring resilience strategies account for the hidden labor sustaining household survival.
This study investigates the role of children as carers in Mongolia, a country with a limited formal care infrastructure and distinct cultural and economic characteristics. Using nationally representative data from the Mongolian Time Use Survey (MTUS) 2019, we find that 32 per cent of children aged 12–17 engage in caregiving activities (and perform 35% of childcare work in the family), compared to 48 per cent of adults. Children’s care work is highly gendered and varies by location, with urban children more likely to care for siblings and less likely to care for older or disabled family members. Our regression analysis reveals that girls, children with younger siblings are more likely to provide care. While light caregiving does not significantly reduce children’s time spent on learning, intensive unpaid work—such as domestic chores and household production—has a substantial negative impact on educational engagement. These findings underscore the importance of recognizing children’s contributions to family care and the need to address the educational trade-offs associated with unpaid work.
We aimed to map paid and unpaid care work in the context of the national economic,social assistance and social welfare policy of Mongolia. We used the secondary data in-cluding the Mongolian Time Use Survey 2015, 2019, Labor Force Survey 2018, HouseholdSocio-Economic Survey 2018, health, education sector statistics available at the NationalStatistical Office information platform onwww.1212.mn, and data and reports publishedby the line ministries and international organizations and reveiwed findings by other re-searchers. Based on the research review, we found that about 30 percent of the centralgovernment budget in 2021 was spent on care services including education, health, anddirectly paid cash allowance and financing care homes for elders, children and people withdisabilities. Moreover, the unpaid care sector produces value equal 15.3- 17 percent of thecountry’s Gross Domestic Product in 2015 and 2019. We identified data gaps for mea-suring paid and unpaid care. Mongolia has relatively good data for examining the caresector, but faces limitations on understanding paid care for elders and disabled people,particularly the extent ofinformalpaid care, and also informal paid care for children 0-2.
Timeusesurveyscancomprehensivelymeasurethetimespentbycitizenson daily activities and are an important source of data for studying a variety of socio-economic phenomena, including paid and unpaid work, gender inequality, the careeconomy,andtimepoverty.TheNationalStatisticalCommitteeofMongoliahasconducteda total of six Time Use Surveys since 2000, collecting data from a total of 31,322households,demonstratingprogressinsurveymethodology,samplerepresentativeness,and data accessibility. Meanwhile, the research community is using the time use dataextensively,butthelackofusingitamongpolicymakersishinderingdata-drivendecision-making in economic and social policies.This article reviews the political, economic, andsocial reasons for implementing the Time Use Surveys in Mongolia, as well as theresearchmethodology,datause,andimplicationsforpolicydevelopment,andsuggestsways to use the data more effectively in the future.
Abstract: The research delivers the climate change impact on the unpaid care giving and receiving in herders, nomadic families in Mongolia. As Floro (2016) notes, the nature of care activities and the distribution of these tasks change over time in response to demographic, technological and economic shifts, as well as unanticipated phenomena such as the COVID-19 pandemic and extreme climate events. We aim to pay special attention to the gendered effects of the unpaid care economy and government policy responses to the rural herder women and men in their care giving and receiving during harsh winter and spring times. Pastoralism provides the livelihood of 40% of the population of 3.4 million people in Mongolia. Weather and infrastructure issues complicate the delivery of preschool education and medical services to nomadic herders. We explored the government policy analysis such as care infrastructure, care-related social protection, care services for rural herders, and the lack of employment-related care policies since they are self-employed herders. We found that to ensure economic survival, herders squeeze their time allocated for care, thus their dependents are, unavoidably, left often unattended. With the rural population aging, and low, and uncertain, herding incomes, partially, herders solve the problem by migrating to urban areas. But migration is not an attractive option for many of the elders we spoke to in herding households, who are deeply attached to their rural environment. At least in the medium term, there will be a need to find ways to improve the provision of care in rural areas. We draw on a wide range of sources—secondary literature, administrative data, the Mongolian Time Use Surveys of 2015 and 2019, and recent interviews with 59 herding households in 7 provinces such as Huvsgul, Zavhan, Dundgobi, Dornod, Hentii, Tuv and Hovd conducted in summer, autumn and winter of 2023 to describe the care situation in Mongolia’s herding households. We discuss the main findings and suggest some possible policies to address challenges of providing care among Mongolian herding households. The need for additional resources to improve rural infrastructure, particularly roads and communication technology, came through clearly in our interviews. We, the researchers, hope that by highlighting key issues we can contribute to the literature on climate change impact on unpaid care and better policymaking. Key Words : Climate change, care work, government policy, herder households, Mongolia JEL : Q54, J13, J14, J16, I38, O53
Childcare represents a substantial component of the care economy, with traditional and cultural norms often placing the primary burden of care on mothers. Despite its significance, there remains a significant gap in research on how childcare is provided in urban and rural settings in Mongolia. This study seeks to bridge this gap by offering a comprehensive analysis of childcare practices in Mongolia, drawing on both primary and secondary data sources. Our research reveals that, due to the limited availability and accessibility of formal paid care services, children have increasingly taken on unpaid childcare responsibilities in these regions. This trend underscores the critical need for an expanded and more accessible childcare system in Mongolia, in urban and rural, nomadic areas. Furthermore, this study critically evaluates the narrow range of paid childcare options currently available in the Mongolian market. The limited array of choices contributes to an unmet demand, leaving many families without adequate support. Our findings also highlight deficiencies in the existing legislative frameworks governing childcare, pointing to a need for significant reforms to create a more inclusive and resilient care infrastructure. In conclusion, our analysis offers vital insights and policy recommendations aimed at developing a comprehensive childcare system that meets the needs of both urban and rural Mongolia. By addressing these gaps, Mongolia can work towards creating a more equitable and accessible childcare environment for all families.
In this paper, we discussed the teaching of Feminist Economics in Mongolia, focusing on the Pedagogical Issues.
ОРЧИН ҮЕИЙН МАЛЧДЫН ХОРШОО БА ТӨСӨЛ ХӨТӨЛБӨРҮҮДИЙН НӨЛӨӨ Пионерын Цэрэнбазар Болдбаатарын Мягмарсүрэн Монгол Улс Энэхүү илтгэлийн хүрээнд малчдын хоршооны үйл ажиллагаа, малчдын гишүүнчлэлийн 2000 оноох хойшх нөхцөл байдлын талаар болон малчдын хоршоонд улсын зүгээс, олон улсын төсөл хөтөлбөрүүдийн зүгээс үзүүлж буй нөлөөллүүдийн талаар авч үзнэ. Энэхүү илтгэлийг бэлтгэгчид 2016 оноос хойш 4 удаа малчдын ахуй нөхцөл, улирлын нүүдэл, малын эрүүл мэнд, үржил, малын гаралтай бүтээгдэхүүний төрөл, хэмжээ, зах зээлийн үнэ ханш, борлуулалтын сувгийн талаар цогц суурь судалгааны багийг ахалж ажиллаад байгаа бөгөөд судалгааны ажил цаашид ч үргэлжлэх юм. Энэ судалгааны үр дүнгээс сүүлийн 10 жилд монгол малчид хэрхэн аж төрж байгаа бүхэл зургийг харж болох ч энэ илтгэлийн хүрээнд малчид хэрхэн эвлэлдэн нэгдэж, хоршооллон ажиллаж байгаа талаар сонирхуулахыг зорьж байна. 2023 оны байдлаар малчдын харьяалагдаж буй малчдын хоршоо дундажаар 10 жил болсон татварын хувьд маш хэлбэлзэлтэй байна. Хоршоодын зүгээс ямар нэгэн үйл ажиллагаа явуулахгүй бол малчид тэнд хамрагдахгүй, хамрагдах төлөвгүй бол хураамж өгөх тохиолдол туйлын бага байна. Малчдын хоршоод гишүүдээсээ хураамж авахаас илүү хувь нийлүүлсэн хэлбэрээр байгуулагдсан эсвэл ноос ноолуурын урамшуулал өгөхийн тулд зохион байгуулагдсан, ченжүүд хоршоо хэлбэрт орсон тохиолдол их ажиглагдлаа. 2018 оны байдлаар ХАА-н байгууллагууд давхардсан тоогоор 389 төрлийн үйл ажиллагаа явуулж байсан бол 2022 оны байдлаар 742 төрлийн үйл ажиллагаа явуулж байна. Хоршоод малчдыг чадавхжуулах, ноос ноолуур авах, арьс шир түүний эд авах, ноос ноолуурын урамшуулалд хамруулах үйл ажиллагаа өмнө үед түлхүү явуулж байсан бол КОВИД 19-н дараа энэ нөхцөл өөрчлөгдөж байна. Олон улсын байгууллагууд (Дэлхийн банк, Азийн хөгжлийн банк, Мерси кор, Жайка болон бусад) малчдыг малжуулах, малын эрүүл мэндийг сайжруулах, малаас авах ашиг шимийг сайжруулах, малчид нэмүү өртөг шингэсэн бүтээгдэхүүн зах зээлд нийлүүлэх боломжийг нэмэгдүүлэх зэрэг чиглэлд сүүлийн 20 гаруй жил үйл ажиллагаа явуулж байна. Төрөл бүрийн төслийн явцад үйл ажиллагаа төлөвлөж, тэднийг хамруулдаг ч төслийн дараа буцаад хуучин хэвэндээ орох тохиолдлууд өндөр байна.
This study attempts to map out the size and shape and measure the paid care sector based on the most available data in Mongolia for the first time. Estimating spending on childcare, elderly care and care for the disabled in monetary terms is essential for the welfare of care receivers and has macroeconomic implications. Using the central government budget spending data, the Labor Force Survey, and the Household Socio-Economic Survey we estimate the approximate size of paid care sector financed by the government and households in Mongolia. We find that Mongolia's preliminary measure of the paid care sector is equal to 10.6 percent of the GDP in 2021. Also, we identified the data gap for measuring paid care.
This study examines the effect of couples' employment status on violence against women based on the 6,090-women sample data from Mongolia's Gender-based Violence Survey 2017 (GBVS). We applied the probit model to analyze the effect and found that the couple's employment status affects the violence against women.
Care work, both paid and unpaid, is extremely important for any social system as well as the economy to survive. The utmost importance of care work was highlighted in the pandemic, when it became challenging to move ahead without the facilities of care staff. The ILO: doubling investment from 2015 levels would result in 117 million additional jobs opportunities by 2030. Because of the nature of care, such professions are less probable to automation. (ILO, 2021) Countries which invest in a care economy have a higher maternal employment to population ratio as per the ILO.
Жил болгоны Асрахуйн эдийн засгийн хэмжилтийн талаар хийдэг ОУХ-д илтгэл тавьсан
Information Technology is one of the most dynamic factors that contribute to the technical progress in production design, business process, and services supply of all types. The theoretical and empirical literature has demonstrated that the adoption and implementation of Information Systems improve the organization’s financial performance. In this paper, we investigate whether the investment in information technology influences the financial performance of organizations basing on the 1,348 Mongolian companies’ financial statement data covering from 2016 to 2020. The fixed effects model is applied for this analysis, and we find that information technology investment positively affects financial performance.
Information Technology (IT) is one of the most dynamic factors that contribute to the technical progress in production design, business process, and services supply of all types. The theoretical and empirical literature has demonstrated that the adoption and implementation of Information Systems improve the organization’s financial performance. In this paper, we investigate whether the investment in IT – hardware and software – influences the financial performance of organizations basing on the 1,348 Mongolian companies’ financial statement data covering from 2016 to 2019. The fixed effect model is applied for this analysis, and we find that IT investment positively affects financial performance.
The outbreak of the COVID-19 virus around the world have resulted governments to take emergency regulations and actions for containing the pandemic such as \travel restriction, lockdowns and social distancing etc. All these restrictions are impact on the household wellbeing hence country wellbeing. 12.8 percent of GDP is from the agriculture sector, of which 11.9 percent is from the livestock sector (as in 2020). All these restrictions are impact on the household wellbeing hence country wellbeing. In the livestock sector, the main producer is a herder household. 1/5 of total household is herder household. and herder household consists of herder(s) and their nuclear family which conducts livestock husbandry around the year for the main purpose of livelihood and source of income. COVID-19 impact on the herder household is might be unlike the urban households due to livestock sectoral characters (for example, possibility of running 'relatively-independent' micro/household production) and traditional herding features (nomadic pastoring). And the impact of COVID-19on the herder household has been little studied. In this study, we draw on unique survey data from a sample of 2080 Mongolian herding households, carried out in 2021, to focus on the herder households and implications of the COVID-19 impact on the herder households.
Women’s role in herding and their empowerment in Mongolian herding households has been little studied, and their participation in decision-making can have important implications for rural households. We draw on a unique sample of 60 Mongolian herding households carried out in 2017 to provide evidence for how herding work and related decision-making is shared between husbands and wives. We extend previous work by using a much more detailed survey, asking about participation in 22 different activities related to herding and 39 decisions, and by analysing factors associated with greater participation in herding decisions by Mongolian women. We show that most herding tasks are not gendered, and, in many tasks, women contribute more time than men. Women made few herdingrelated decisions alone, and they participate jointly with their spouses in about half the decisions, many fewer than men. Women who contribute more to herding income through milk and cashmere production have more input into many decisions; more educated women have greater participation in some decisions. These findings suggest policy paths toward greater equality and improved outcomes in Mongolian herding households.
In this study, we attempted to calculate the sticky cost of the Mongolian financial institutions basing on the 3211 companies’ financial statement data that covers from 2013 to 2018. Here we applied the fixed-effect model for this analysis and find that cost stickiness is 0.26 percent per 1 percent decrease in total revenue. Moreover, it is 0.4% for securities companies while 0.26% for non-bank financial institutions.
The study is designed to assess the current status and factors of the students' knowledge, skills, and attitude and toward traditional customs with the utmost goal to direct national educational policy on Mongolian youth in the emerging globalized era. According to the findings, any nation must embrace customs, traditions that derive from daily life, and education is considered a key tool to achieve the above goal. The research question is to what extent the national curriculum supports such inter- curriculum issues as youth knowledge and skills on the traditional customs and what are the factors of its successful implementation. The research framework covers the study of the students' academic performance in the area of traditional customs by developing tests, task, content analysis of the curriculum and the textbook analysis, parents, teachers, and school factors as well. In total 3, 095 students, 17 secondary schools of Ulaanbaatar city and regions covered. The result shows that poor performance of the student knowledge, skills, and attitude towards tradition is directly connected to the national curriculum, such factors as an identified skill on the traditions [Sig=.000] and devoted time [Sig=000]. Results of the analysis of the supporting factors such as number of the textbook assignments [Sig=.005], teachers knowledge of the traditions [Sig=.000], parents' acknowledgment of the traditional customs [Sig=.002], as well as school policy on the extracurricular activities planning and implementation, shows its correlation too. The survey showed that overall management of the cross-curriculum knowledge and skills should be improved.
The concept of gender bargaining power has become central to economic theory and public policy. Researchers have sought to measure bargaining power in order to better understand factors that contribute to its increase and its relationship to improved outcomes for women. Thus, we collected unique survey data of 60 Mongolian herding households (couples) and we provide an overview of the productive herding activities and gender divisions of labor and decision-making in our herding households. We show that herding activities in Mongolian households are both gender-segregated and shared, that decision-making is also both gender-segregated and shared, but that decision-making rights are not always directly related to time allocation in related work. We also show both men and women agree that income on all products is shared even when men produce and sell the products, suggesting some bargaining power for women (or norms of sharing).
Abstract: Aviation industry’s competition is intensifying every year, by the appearance of the low-cost carriers (LCC). We have conducted the questionnaire survey to reveal the satisfactory level of aviation company and concluded the results in this paper. As result of the factor analysis, 6 components had chosen as customer satisfaction such as “In-flight service”, “In flight comfort”, “Reliability”, “Number of flights and waiting time”, “Cost of flight” and “Safety”. As for the domestic aviation company, to compete in the era of high competition, they have to choose whether to compete in the full-service carrier (differentiation strategy), nor the low-cost carrier (cost leadership strategy). Keywords: Generic strategy, competition factor, customer behavior
