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The theory of social practice developed by French sociologist and philosopher, Pierre Bourdieu, is considered to be useful for explaining the social practices around technology use. Thus, this paper presents Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus and field as fundamental components of the social practices associated with using digital technologies. Habitus in individuals is inculcated, structured, shaped and developed through various practices within the family and social world from birth. A field is a social space or arena, one of many which constitute a society. The power of people in a field depends on their position, dominant or subordinate, within the field and the amount of resources or capital they possess. Fields constitute the context for social practice. The concepts of habitus and field are inseparable and relational: field conditions and shapes habitus and habitus gives the field meaning. By using these notions in the studies about students’ digital technology practices researchers can analyse and explain the contextual factors impacting on the students’ everyday digital literacy practices. Importantly, the students’ digital literacy practices should be understood within their situated contexts, including the volume of capital they possessed and their dispositions towards those practices.
School culture is increasingly recognised as a critical determinant of teachers’ engagement with continuous professional development and their sustained occupational motivation. This paper reports a synthesis of qualitative findings from three empirical studies conducted in Mongolia between 2020 and 2025, drawing on interview data from English teachers in urban public and private schools and rural contexts. The synthesis identifies three interlocking dimensions of school culture that affect teachers’ professional development practices and motivation: the presence or absence of shared professional vision and supportive leadership; the quality of collegial relationships and collaborative norms; and the structural conditions, such as workload and resource allocation, through which school culture is materially expressed. Teachers’ accounts reveal that unsupportive leadership, interpersonal conflict, hierarchical tensions, and institutional indifference to professional growth suppress both engagement with professional development and intrinsic motivation to teach. Rural teachers experience compounded cultural isolation that further erodes professional agency. The paper argues that meaningful improvement in Mongolian English education requires not only systemic policy reform but deliberate cultivation of school cultures that regard teacher learning as a collective institutional priority rather than an individual burden.
Over the past three decades, Mongolia has made significant strides in prioritising English language education as part of its national development agenda. Yet the teachers who carry the weight of this agenda tell complicated stories defined not by professional fulfilment but by exhaustion, isolation, and a growing feeling that the system neither values nor supports them adequately. This paper draws on a synthesis of qualitative findings from three studies of English language teachers working in urban public and private schools and rural contexts. Drawing on the language teacher wellbeing literature, particularly the multi-layered ecological framework which locates wellbeing threats at macro, meso, and micro levels, the paper argues that the teachers face a wellbeing crisis that cannot be attributed to any single factor. At the macro level, expanding English education policy places growing demands on teachers without commensurate investment. At the meso level, unsupportive school culture and dysfunctional collegial relationships erode teachers’ professional belonging. At the micro level, excessive workload, resource deprivation, and professional isolation, particularly in rural contexts, undermine daily professional satisfaction. Addressing teacher wellbeing requires coordinated responses across all three levels rather than placing the burden of resilience on individuals.
This study investigates the factors discouraging Mongolian pre-service English teachers from entering the teaching profession. Despite growing demand for qualified English teachers in Mongolia, many teacher education students express uncertainty about pursuing teaching careers after graduation. Using a qualitative approach, this study draws on a focus group interview with seven final-year pre-service teachers and employs thematic analysis to examine the tensions influencing their career decision-making. Three interconnected push factors emerged from the analysis. First, participants identified a significant mismatch between university coursework and the realities of English teaching in Mongolian schools. Second, perceptions of teachers' work—characterised by heavy workloads, large class sizes, behavioural management challenges, low salaries, and negative public discourse—served as strong deterrents. Third, concerns about personal wellbeing and long-term career aspirations led students to fear burnout and potential misalignment between their values and the demands of teaching. Despite recognising the social importance of English teaching, participants frequently viewed the profession as a secondary or backup option rather than a first-choice career. These findings highlight the urgent need for strengthened practicum structures, improved working conditions, and enhanced support for teacher identity development to make English teaching careers in Mongolia more attractive and sustainable.
English language education has been prioritized by the Mongolian government since 1990 when Mongolia transitioned from socialism to democracy. Recently, the Ministry of Education has announced that it is planning to commence teaching English in grade 3 at the primary level in public schools from the academic year of 2025–2026, a change from the current practice of starting in grade 5. To implement this change, there is a need to explore the realities of English education in various contexts of Mongolia. However, the research investigating the current issues in English education in rural schools is limited. Addressing this gap, the study aims to explore the challenges that rural English teachers encounter. The findings indicate the following challenges which include heavy workload, low salaries, limited teaching resources, shortage of teachers and low levels of English proficiency. However, the geographical and socio-economic dynamics of rural Mongolia amplify these difficulties and present unique circumstances that affect their motivation and wellbeing. Furthermore, the study recommends that there is an immediate need for the government and the relevant institutions to implement policies addressing the systemic factors that demotivate them aimed at enhancing the wellbeing of rural teachers to prevent their burnout, reducing teacher shortage and attrition, and improving the quality of English education in Mongolia’s remote areas.
The teacher shortage in Mongolia has become a significant issue, as evidenced by the government's recent decision to implement a 45-day training program aimed at retraining university graduates who did not major in teaching or education to become secondary school teachers. This necessitates measures to prevent further teacher attrition and to conduct studies on the challenges teachers face throughout their careers in order to implement effective solutions. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the factors that demotivate novice English teachers during their first year of teaching in secondary schools. Eight novice teachers were interviewed about their teaching experiences, working condition and the challenges they encountered. The preliminary data analysis indicates that novice teachers had both positive and negative experiences, which were influenced by various factors within their teaching environments. These factors include student behaviour, class sizes, classroom conditions, and differing attitudes among colleagues, ranging from supportive to critical or dismissive. Additionally, personal factors such as their English language proficiency level and attitudes toward teaching and professional development played a role. Moreover, the low salary level and the social status of schoolteachers in the country were also cited as factors that may hinder their teaching careers. The study recommends that, to help novice teachers remain in the profession, there is an immediate need to increase their salaries and ensure comprehensive professional support at the governmental level and to develop collaboration and interpersonal relationships among teachers and administrators at the school level.
While it is important to implement English language education policies and practices that respond to changes in society, it is equally important to understand the challenges of English teachers in implementing these policies and practices in classrooms and beyond. Because teachers are crucial actors for the successful implementation of English language policies and practices, their professional development and competence should be a priority and their voices need to be heard. Yet research investigating the current issues in English language education in rural schools of Mongolia is limited. Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap by exploring the realities of English education in rural settings and by uncovering a broader perspective of a wide range of challenges that English teachers encounter in rural Mongolian schools. Six local in-service teachers and a teacher trainer from overseas who worked with rural English teachers for 10 months were interviewed in this study. The preliminary data analysis indicates that depending on the geographical location and other factors namely whether the school is supported by the local mining company, the professional development opportunities for English teachers vary. This study allows for a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the rural teachers’ perspectives towards the ongoing nature of professional development activities. Importantly, the study shows that, amongst many other factors, the mental health of teachers living and working in rural contexts isolated from urban areas cannot be overlooked. Overall, the study indicates that the Mongolian government needs to take measures to identify the needs of rural English language teachers, to increase their motivation to work in a rural context and to be updated professionally, and to address a lack of well qualified English teachers in rural schools in order to ensure comprehensive professional support and to prevent potential educational inequality between urban and rural contexts.
Bourdieu’s theory of practice has been applied to investigate and understand the ways in which digital technologies have been used in people’s lives. Thus, this paper presents and explains Bourdieu’s concept of capital as a constituent of the social practices related to using digital technologies. The different forms of capital (economic, cultural, social and symbolic) are intertwined and can facilitate the accumulation of each other. University students’ digital literacy practices can reflect their cultural and social capital resources and contribute to their accumulation of other types of capital. By using the notion of capital in the studies about students’ digital technology practices researchers can reveal how students come into learning with different degrees of access to a range of resources – social and cultural capital – and educational and social inequalities amongst them which were embedded in their everyday practices shaped by their complex educational histories, identities and present circumstances. The range of studies suggests that there is a need for further research investigating the relationships between the use of digital technologies, particularly the internet and capital, in a variety of contexts.
Assessing students’ progress, proficiency or achievement is an integral part of the teaching language and curriculum development process. It ranges from formal tests to informal assessments. This paper briefly discusses the six qualities of a “useful” test (reliability, validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact and practicality) in relation to assessing reading comprehension.
English language education has been compulsory in Mongolian schools for nearly three decades. While it is important to implement English language education policies and practices that respond to changes in society, it is equally important to understand the challenges of English teachers in implementing these policies and practices in classroom settings and beyond. Therefore, this study aims to explore English teachers’ viewpoints of teacher or professional development. Forty three public and private school teachers were interviewed in this study. Most participants were concerned about English teachers’ quality in Mongolia. Clearly, there was a lack of professional development opportunities for public school English teachers and some teachers needed an attitudinal change to understand the importance of ongoing professional development. Overall, the study indicates that the Mongolian government needs to increase public school teachers’ salaries to increase their motivation to be updated professionally and to address a lack of well qualified English teachers in both public and private schools.
Science Наадам 2023 ЭШХ-ын "Тогтвортой хөгжлийн зорилт, түүний асуудлууд" салбар хуралдаанд Яриа таних системүүд хэрэглэгчдийг ярианы хэв маяг, онцлогийг бүрэн хамруулж чадаж байгаа эсэх болон хэрэглэгчийн сэтгэл ханамжийн тал дээр хийсэн бичил судалгаагаар зарим хэрэгсэл нь Англи хэл суралцагчдын яриаг тэгш хамруулан чадаж байгаа эсэхийг судлав.
Abstract: The paper outlines the concepts of multimodality and digital literacies which are proved useful in the investigation of the literacy practices associated with and mediated by digital technologies. In addition, a number of critical perspectives related to digital inequality have been discussed. Digital literacy has been attributed to a variety of distinctive characteristics, such as critical thinking, the ability to master multiple discourses, and reflection of people’s identities, facilitating learning and social participation, according to the research works studied as part of this implication.
In responding to neoliberal globalization, the importance of English language education has been strongly emphasized in many Asian countries, including Mongolia, during the past several decades. Despite the nationwide prioritization of English language education in Mongolia, little research has examined the experiences and challenges of English teachers in teaching English as a compulsory subject in Mongolian secondary schools. This study aims to address this gap by exploring teachers’ perceptions of teaching English and the challenges they encounter, by interviewing forty-three private and public-school teachers. The findings indicate that although teachers had positive attitudes about the nationwide emphasis on English education, they also have experienced a variety of challenges, including workload, lack of professional development and support, lack of shared vision and supportive leadership, and other tensions related to low pay and the social status of schoolteachers in that country. Furthermore, the study recommends that the Mongolian government must create initiatives to reduce educational inequality associated with access to quality English language education, for instance, by increasing funding for public schools, raising awareness of teachers about their importance for the future of the country, and improving the quality of pre-service and in-service teacher education.
English has been increasingly used for global communication purposes, and educational systems in many countries have responded by prioritizing English language education over teaching and learning of other foreign languages. In Mongolia, the growing popularity of English resulted in the nationwide programmes on English Language Education that required skilled English language teachers to engage students in meaningful language learning opportunities. To date, no empirical studies on the impact of the new English language curriculum on Mongolian secondary teachers’ beliefs and practices have been reported in the literature. This study aims to address this gap by exploring secondary school teachers’ perceptions about the successes and challenges of teaching a global language in a local context. The findings suggest that Mongolian public school teachers face multiple challenges, including frequent curriculum and textbook changes, large class sizes, inadequate facilities and insufficient resources. At the same time, the findings of this study shed light on positive developments in the field of secondary EFL teaching in Mongolia. It is hoped that this study will inform policymakers and other stakeholders about on-the-ground understandings and implementation of educational reforms, as well as provide English teachers in similar contexts with strategies required to maintain effective EFL teaching practices.
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been considered as important for an effective language teaching approach, the aim of which is to provide learners with the mastery of vocabulary and communication skills in the target language. As the appropriateness of the CLT in different educational and sociocultural contexts needs to be investigated, this paper discusses the views of ten pre-service English teachers who completed their 12-week teaching practicum in the secondary schools in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia about the communicative approach to teaching English. The findings indicate that English teachers should use context-based teaching methodology, adapting CLT for the Mongolian context, and the materials from different sources with different perspectives to promote effective language teaching.
The presentation is about how English language education has been changed due to the globalization and new technologies drawing on the review of some articles and documents about English language education. It also briefly discusses the realities in some public schools in the digital age.
Поскольку глобализация требует от преподавателей английского языка развивать навыки «критического мышления» учащихся, преподавателям необходимо научиться применять концепцию критической грамотности на практике. Эта статья представляет собой краткое обсуждение критической грамотности и предоставляет монгольским преподавателям английского языка некоторые практические решения для развития этих навыков на примере использования сказок для прочтения на своих занятиях в целях научить студентов читать и писать критически.
Students’ everyday engagement with digital technology: A Bourdieusian analysis Daariimaa Marav Associate Professor, National University of Mongolia Extending global discussions on the application of Bourdieu’s theories in the field of Literacy Studies and employing a mixed methods approach, the paper examines how Mongolian university students majoring in English used digital technologies, especially the internet, in their everyday lives. Data were generated through surveys of 98 students in 2010 and of 80 students in 2016 and through observations of and interviews with six case study participants in 2010 and with seven participants in 2016. The findings reveal, that there were common digital and linguistic distinctions among the university students that depended on their social background: in particular, where the students were from – urban, suburban or rural locations – and the quality of their schooling before entering university. The participants who were already advantaged in terms of using English and digital literacies were more committed to developing themselves further and fitted into the field of higher education both academically and socially. Furthermore, the students' engagement with digital technologies in and out of university and their English language proficiency affected their status, prestige and knowledge, and contributed to accumulating and strengthening their various forms of capital: social, cultural, economic and symbolic. These forms of capital were evident in the research participants' lives, shaped their dispositions towards their digital literacy practices and eventually contributed to their life opportunities including their future careers. Importantly, the study indicates the need to ameliorate the inequalities associated with students’ previous schooling in Mongolia. Keywords: digital literacy practices, Mongolian university students, Bourdieu, cultural capital, inequality.
